Biogeographic Patterns of Medicinal Plant Diversity in the Indo-Malayan Realm: A Multiscale Assessment Using GBIF Botanical Records

Abstrak

This study investigates the biogeographic, ecological, and anthropogenic drivers shaping the distribution, richness, and conservation status of medicinal plants in the Indo-Malayan Realm by integrating GBIF occurrence data with environmental, phylogenetic, and ethnobotanical layers. Results reveal that species assemblages are strongly structured by historical biogeographic boundaries, particularly the Indomalayan–Wallacean transition, which contributes to high endemism and lineage divergence across island systems. Environmental gradients especially elevation, precipitation seasonality, and forest-type heterogeneity further influence richness patterns, with montane and lowland rainforests serving as critical reservoirs of medicinal flora. However, accelerating land-use change, deforestation, and the expansion of naturalized invasive species pose substantial threats to native medicinal-plant diversity, leading to habitat fragmentation and declining population stability. Despite these pressures, community-based forest management and traditional knowledge systems continue to play a pivotal role in maintaining sustainable use and local conservation practices. The findings highlight the need for integrated conservation strategies that combine spatial biodiversity assessments with culturally grounded resource governance to ensure the long-term resilience of medicinal plants within the Indo-Malayan bioregion.