Digital Ecosystem Disparities and Interprovincial Educational Quality in Indonesia: Development of the Digital–Education Vulnerability Index and Spatial Analysis Based on BPS Data and the 2025 Education Report Card
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65310/cj8rvf58Kata Kunci:
Composite Index, Digital Divide, Educational Inequality, Spatial Analysis, Vulnerability.Abstrak
Digital transformation has expanded educational opportunities in Indonesia, but the capacity to benefit from digital resources remains territorially unequal. This study develops a Digital–Education Vulnerability Index (DEVI) for all 38 Indonesian provinces using complete 2025 provincial series from Statistics Indonesia. The final specification integrates youth cellular-phone use, computer use, and internet use within the Digital Vulnerability Index (DVI), and the School Participation Rate for ages 16–18 and senior-secondary Net Enrolment Rate within the Educational Vulnerability Index (EVI). Beneficial indicators were reverse-normalized by min–max transformation, weighted within each dimension by the Entropy Weight Method, and combined with equal dimensional contributions. Spatial dependence was tested with a row-standardized four-nearest-neighbor matrix, while DVI–EVI association, OLS regression with HC3 standard errors, and equal-weight sensitivity analysis assessed cross-dimensional consistency and robustness. Highland Papua (DEVI=0.9441), Central Papua (0.8868), and South Papua (0.5738) recorded the highest vulnerability, whereas DI Yogyakarta (0.0004), Bali (0.0320), and Riau Islands (0.0403) recorded the lowest. DVI and EVI were positively associated (Spearman ρ=0.671, p<0.001), and DEVI displayed significant spatial clustering (Global Moran’s I=0.545, p=0.0001), with significant High–High concentrations across several Papuan provinces. The entropy-weight and equal-weight rankings were highly concordant (ρ=0.989). These results show that digital and educational vulnerability is jointly structured but not interchangeable, supporting territorially differentiated intervention rather than uniform connectivity policy.
Unduhan
Referensi
Alqararah, K. (2023). Assessing the robustness of composite indicators: The case of the Global Innovation Index. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 12, 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-023-00332-w
Barragán Moreno, S. P., & Guzmán Rincón, A. (2025). Digital divide as an explanatory variable for dropout in higher education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 22, 60. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-025-00550-0
Caldarulo, M., Mossberger, K., & Howell, A. (2023). Community-wide broadband adoption and student academic achievement. Telecommunications Policy, 47(1), 102445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2022.102445
Cambini, C., Sabatino, L., & Zaccagni, S. (2024). The faster the better? Advanced internet access and student performance. Telecommunications Policy, 48(8), 102815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102815
Corkin, M. T., Meissel, K., Peterson, E. R., Lee, K., Giacaman, N., Janicot, S., & Morton, S. M. B. (2022). Are distinct modes of using digital technologies evident by age eight? Implications for digital divides. Computers & Education, 191, 104642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104642
D’Amario, M., Cartone, A., & Postiglione, P. (2026). Incorporating spatial information in entropy-weighted composite indicators: An application to education and training in Italy. Geographical Analysis, 58(3), e70045. https://doi.org/10.1111/gean.70045
Delprato, M., Chudgar, A., & Frola, A. (2024). Spatial education inequality for attainment indicators in sub-Saharan Africa and spillovers effects. World Development, 176, 106522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106522
Derksen, L., Michaud-Leclerc, C., & Souza, P. C. L. (2022). Restricted access: How the internet can be used to promote reading and learning. Journal of Development Economics, 155, 102810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2021.102810
Guo, C., & Wan, B. (2022). The digital divide in online learning in China during the COVID-19 pandemic. Technology in Society, 71, 102122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102122
Hannan, B., & Eynon, R. (2025). Widening the digital divide: The mediating role of Intelligent Tutoring Systems in the relationship between rurality, socioeducational advantage, and mathematics learning outcomes. Computers & Education, 233, 105312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105312
Hidayah, S. (2022). Online learning during the pandemic in Indonesia: A case study on digital divide and sociality among students. Humaniora, 34(2), 149–158. https://doi.org/10.22146/jh.72605
Jiang, L., Chen, J., Tian, Y., & Luo, J. (2022). Spatial pattern and influencing factors of basic education resources in rural areas around metropolises—A case study of Wuhan City’s new urban districts. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(11), 576. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11110576
Kaarakainen, M.-T., & Saikkonen, L. (2023). Remark on digital accessibility: Educational disparities define digital inclusion from adolescence onwards. Universal Access in the Information Society, 22, 1279–1292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-022-00908-5
Kannan, K. B. N., Overby, E., & Narasimhan, S. (2025). Can improvements to mobile internet service help reduce digital inequality? An empirical analysis of education and overall data consumption. Management Science, 71(7), 5419–5440. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.03770
Kastorff, T., Müller, M., & Greiff, S. (2025). Digital media use and availability can mitigate the digital divide: Meta-analytic insights from PISA 2022. Computers & Education, 238, 105409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105409
Korkmaz, Ö., Erer, E., & Erer, D. (2022). Internet access and its role on educational inequality during the COVID-19 pandemic. Telecommunications Policy, 46(5), 102353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2022.102353
Kumi-Yeboah, A., Kim, Y., & Armah, Y. E. (2023). Strategies for overcoming the digital divide during the COVID-19 pandemic in higher education institutions in Ghana. British Journal of Educational Technology, 54(6), 1441–1462. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13356
Libório, M. P., Karagiannis, R., Diniz, A. M. A., Ekel, P. I., Vieira, D. A. G., & Ribeiro, L. C. (2024). The use of information entropy and expert opinion in maximizing the discriminating power of composite indicators. Entropy, 26(2), 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/e26020143
Lin, R., Chu, J., Yang, L., Lou, L., Yu, H., & Yang, J. (2023). What are the determinants of rural-urban divide in teachers’ digital teaching competence? Empirical evidence from a large sample. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10, 422. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01933-2
Lu, W., Li, Y., Zhao, R., He, B., & Qian, Z. (2022). Spatial pattern and fairness measurement of educational resources in primary and middle schools: A case study of Chengdu–Chongqing Economic Circle. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710840
Mascheroni, G., Cino, D., Mikuška, J., & Šmahel, D. (2022). Explaining inequalities in vulnerable children’s digital skills: The effect of individual and social discrimination. New Media & Society, 24(2), 437–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211063184
Meng, Y., Xu, W., Liu, Z., & Yu, Z.-G. (2024). Scientometric analyses of digital inequity in education: Problems and solutions. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11, 1052. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03480-w
Mikhailov, A., Tikhonov, A., & Fedulov, V. (2024). Digital inequality in education: Features of manifestation and types of discrimination during COVID-19 pandemic. Education and Information Technologies, 29(15), 20493–20504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12640-z
Mirazchiyski, P. V. (2025). Contemporary gaps in research on digital divide in education: A literature review. Universal Access in the Information Society, 24, 991–1008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-024-01166-3
Muhaimin, A. A., Gamal, A., & Setianto, M. A. S. (2022). The spatial justice of school distribution in Jakarta. Heliyon, 8(11), e11369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11369
Nordrum, E., & Gracia, P. (2024). Impacts of broadband internet on adolescents’ academic outcomes: Heterogeneous effects among lower secondary school students in Norway. Information, Communication & Society, 27(16), 2776–2800. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2023.2295360
Pedaste, M., Kallas, K., & Baucal, A. (2023). Digital competence test for learning in schools: Development of items and scales. Computers & Education, 203, 104830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104830
Ragnedda, M., Ruiu, M. L., & Addeo, F. (2022). The self-reinforcing effect of digital and social exclusion: The inequality loop. Telematics and Informatics, 72, 101852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101852
Ren, W., Zhu, X., & Yang, J. (2022). The SES-based difference of adolescents’ digital skills and usages: An explanation from family cultural capital. Computers & Education, 177, 104382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104382
Sajjad, M., Munir, H., Kanwal, S., & Naqvi, S. A. A. (2022). Spatial inequalities in education status and its determinants in Pakistan: A district-level modelling in the context of Sustainable Development Goal 4. Applied Geography, 140, 102665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2022.102665
van de Werfhorst, H. G., Kessenich, E., & Geven, S. (2022). The digital divide in online education: Inequality in digital readiness of students and schools. Computers and Education Open, 3, 100100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2022.100100
Wang, F., Ni, X., Zhang, M., & Zhang, J. (2024). Educational digital inequality: A meta-analysis of the relationship between digital device use and academic performance in adolescents. Computers & Education, 213, 105003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105003
Wirandana, P. A., & Khoirunurrofik, K. (2024). Educational inequality in Indonesia: Are intergovernmental fiscal transfers effective in reducing the gap? Educational Studies, 50(6), 1424–1443. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2022.2103647
Zahl-Thanem, A., & Rye, J. F. (2024). Spatial inequality in higher education: A growing urban–rural educational gap? European Sociological Review, 40(6), 1067–1081. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcae015
Zangana, D. D., Ibrahim, A. J., Yuan, H., & Amani-Beni, M. (2024). Educational inequality in urban settings: A spatial analysis of school distribution and double-shift system challenges—A case study. Journal of Urban Management, 13(4), 832–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2024.08.004.
Unduhan
Diterbitkan
Terbitan
Bagian
Lisensi
Hak Cipta (c) 2026 Sahal Hanafi, Azka Syifaul Maula, Nur Vita Ristiana, Assmaa Guerra, Deo Renaldi Saputra, Elinda Novita Dewi (Author)
Artikel ini berlisensiCreative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
